In computer science, evolutionary computation is a subfield of artificial Intelligence (more particularly computational intelligence) that involves combinatorial optimization problems.
Evolutionary computation uses iterative progress, such as growth or development in a population. This population is then selected in a guided random search using parallel processing to achieve the desired end. Such processes are often inspired by biological mechanisms of evolution.
History
The use of Darwinian principles for automated problem solving originated in the fifties. It was not until the sixties that three distinct interpretations of this idea started to be developed in three different places.
Evolutionary programming was introduced by Lawrence J. Fogel in the USA, while John Henry Holland called his method a genetic algorithm. In Germany Ingo Rechenberg and Hans-Paul Schwefel introduced evolution strategies. These areas developed separately for about 15 years. From the early nineties on they are unified as different representatives (“dialects”) of one technology, called evolutionary computing. Also in the early nineties, a fourth stream following the general ideas had emerged – genetic programming.
These terminologies denote the field of evolutionary computing and consider evolutionary programming, evolution strategies, genetic algorithms, and genetic programming as sub-areas.
Techniques
Evolutionary techniques mostly involve metaheuristic optimization algorithms such as:
• evolutionary algorithms (comprising genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming, evolution strategy and genetic programming)
• swarm intelligence (comprising ant colony optimization and particle swarm optimization)
and in a lesser extent also:
• self-organization such as self-organizing maps, growing neural gas, competitive learning demo applet
• differential evolution
• artificial life (also see digital organism)
• cultural algorithms
• harmony search algorithm
• artificial immune systems
• learning classifier systems
• Learnable Evolution Model
Evolutionary algorithms
Evolutionary algorithms form a subset of evolutionary computation in that they generally only involve techniques implementing mechanisms inspired by biological evolution such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, natural selection and survival of the fittest. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the cost function determines the environment within which the solutions "live" (see also fitness function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators.
In this process, there are two main forces that form the basis of evolutionary systems: Recombination and mutation create the necessary diversity and thereby facilitate novelty, while selection acts as a force increasing quality.
Many aspects of such an evolutionary process are stochastic. Changed pieces of information due to recombination and mutation are randomly chosen. On the other hand, selection operators can be either deterministic, or stochastic. In the latter case, individuals with a higher fitness have a higher chance to be selected than individuals with a lower fitness, but typically even the weak individuals have a chance to become a parent or to survive.
Pembahasan
Evolutionary Computation atau dalam bahasa Indonesianya, Komputasi evolusioner. Subbidang kecerdasan buatan yang terinspirasi oleh evolusi biologi, seperti pertumbuhan atau perkembangan populasi. Pada pengaplikasian teori didasari dari prinsip-prinsip dan dalil-dalil yang lahir dari para penemu dan ahli dari tahun lima puluhan hingga sembilan puluhan, jelasnya didasari oleh teori Darwin tentang seleksi alam yang berkaitan dengan evolusi atau perkembangan pada bidang biologi.
Tekniknya yang sebagian besar melibatkan algoritma optimasi metaheuristic seperti algoritma evolusioner dan swarm intelijen. Algoritma evolusioner adalah teknik yang mengimplementasi dari evolusi biologi, contohnya seperti rekombinasi & mutasi juga seleksi yang dianggap sebagai kekuatan utama dalam sistem evolusi. Rekombinasi & mutasi yang menciptakan keberagaman dan variasi sehingga menciptakan suatu fasilatas yang baru. Sedangkan Seleksi yang meningkatkan kualitas. Algoritma ini bersifat generik dan sangat fleksibel, menyebabkan dapat digunakan dalam aplikasi dan tujuan yang berbeda. secara garis besar bisa dibagi dalam lima kategori, Perencanaan (planning), Perancangan (design), Simulasi dan identifikasi (simulation and identification), Kontrol (control), dan Pengelompokkan (classification).
Dalam prosesnya, evolutionary algorithm melibatkan komponen-komponen antara lain: individual, fitness function, metode seleksi, operator genetik, dan populasi. Individual adalah kandidat solusi untuk permasalahan yang ingin dicari solusinya. Fitness Function merupakan komponen yang krusial dalam suatu evolutionary algorithm. Tujuan Fitness Function adalah untuk memetakan representasi kromosom ke suatu nilai skalar. Fitness Function digunakan untuk mengevaluasi seberapa baik suatu individual bisa digunakan dalam memecahkan masalah yang dikehendaki, fitness function juga berperan untuk menentukan individual mana yang akan bereproduksi dan sebagian materi genetiknya (yaitu bagian dari candidate solutionnya) akan ‘diwariskan’ kepada penerusnya/generasi berikutnya. Metode seleksi yang dimaksud mencakup mekanisme seleksi induk (parents) dan mekanisme seleksi survivor. Operator genetik berperan untuk menciptakan individual baru dari individual lama (parents) atau tujuan akhirnya adalah membangkitkan candidate solutions baru. Populasi memiliki peran sebagai representasi dari segala kemungkinan solusi. Populasi merupakan kumpulan individual atau populasi merupakan multiset dari genotypes. Genotypes adalah sejumlah karakter yang diwariskan yang tetap terkandung dalam seluruh proses reproduksi populasi.
Sumber :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_computation
http://statistikakomputasi.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/mengenal-evolutionary-computation-komputasi-yang-meniru-evolusi-alam/
Jumat, 18 Juni 2010
Kamis, 25 Maret 2010
Perbandingan Intel Core i7 dan AMD Phenom II X4
Perkembangan Teknologi komputer sangat pesat. Hampir ditiap bulannya telah tersedia perangkat keras komputer tersebut. Salah satu perangkat tersebut ialah prosesor. Di dunia prosesor, terdapat 2 produsen yang bersaing ketat dalam perkembangannya. Ialah Intel dan AMD nama kedua produsen tersebut.
Dewasa ini, intel meluncurkan proseor terbarunya, yakni Intel Core i7. AMD pun tidak mau kalah dengan Intel dengan meluncurkan Phenom II X4 (Deneb), yang merupakan perkembangan dari prosesor; sebelumnya yang gagal; Phenom I (Agena). Kedua prosesor ini memiliki kelebihan masing-masing. Untuk itu akan dibahas kelebihan-kelebihan dari keduanya.
Untuk Core i7, unggul dibidang performa. Ber-asitektur berbeda dari pendahulunya, Core2duo/quad. Yaitu NEHALEM, yang merupakan platform baru yang betul-betul berbeda. Sistem bus Intel FSB diganti dengan Quick Path Interconnect (QPI) yang merupakan sistem interface yang jauh lebih cepat yaitu 6.4 Gt/s dibandingkan dengan FSB tertinggi dari Intel, yaitu 1.6 Gt/s.
QPI menyediakan dua jalur terpisah untuk komunikasi antar CPU dan chipset, yang memungkinkan CPU untuk mengirimkan dan menerima data I/O pada saat yang bersamaan (secara paralel). Core i7 memiliki Integrated Memory Controller dengan dukungan triple-channel DDR3.
Core i7 juga menggunakan soket LGA1336 dan baru satu pilihan chipset yang ada yaitu, Intel X58 yang memiliki dukungan CrossfireX dan SLI. Walaupun mengungguli kompetitornya, beberapa orang menilai performa yang diberikan kurang maksimal dalam gaming.
Untuk Phenom II X4 performanya maningkat dengan signifikan dibandingkan Phenom pendahulunya. Prosesor ini menggunakan DDR2 untuk seri xx0 dan DDR3 untuk seri xx5; yang masih belum jelas peluncurannya.
Prosesor ini kompatibel dengan soket AM2 dan AM2+, yang dapat digunakan untuk motherboard dan DDR2 yang lama. Memiliki kapasitas L3 cache yang lebih besar yaitu, 6 MB. Dibandingkan dengan Phenom I, Phenom II berbasiskan proses produksi 45 nm.
Dari hasil review beberapa situs hardware, kinerja Phenom II masih kalah dengan Core i7 secara clock-to-clock (baca. performa), mungkin lebih tepat bersaing dengan Core 2 Quad 9xxx mengingat harga keseluruhan PC Phenom II lebih murah.
Dewasa ini, intel meluncurkan proseor terbarunya, yakni Intel Core i7. AMD pun tidak mau kalah dengan Intel dengan meluncurkan Phenom II X4 (Deneb), yang merupakan perkembangan dari prosesor; sebelumnya yang gagal; Phenom I (Agena). Kedua prosesor ini memiliki kelebihan masing-masing. Untuk itu akan dibahas kelebihan-kelebihan dari keduanya.
Untuk Core i7, unggul dibidang performa. Ber-asitektur berbeda dari pendahulunya, Core2duo/quad. Yaitu NEHALEM, yang merupakan platform baru yang betul-betul berbeda. Sistem bus Intel FSB diganti dengan Quick Path Interconnect (QPI) yang merupakan sistem interface yang jauh lebih cepat yaitu 6.4 Gt/s dibandingkan dengan FSB tertinggi dari Intel, yaitu 1.6 Gt/s.
QPI menyediakan dua jalur terpisah untuk komunikasi antar CPU dan chipset, yang memungkinkan CPU untuk mengirimkan dan menerima data I/O pada saat yang bersamaan (secara paralel). Core i7 memiliki Integrated Memory Controller dengan dukungan triple-channel DDR3.Core i7 juga menggunakan soket LGA1336 dan baru satu pilihan chipset yang ada yaitu, Intel X58 yang memiliki dukungan CrossfireX dan SLI. Walaupun mengungguli kompetitornya, beberapa orang menilai performa yang diberikan kurang maksimal dalam gaming.
Untuk Phenom II X4 performanya maningkat dengan signifikan dibandingkan Phenom pendahulunya. Prosesor ini menggunakan DDR2 untuk seri xx0 dan DDR3 untuk seri xx5; yang masih belum jelas peluncurannya.
Prosesor ini kompatibel dengan soket AM2 dan AM2+, yang dapat digunakan untuk motherboard dan DDR2 yang lama. Memiliki kapasitas L3 cache yang lebih besar yaitu, 6 MB. Dibandingkan dengan Phenom I, Phenom II berbasiskan proses produksi 45 nm.Dari hasil review beberapa situs hardware, kinerja Phenom II masih kalah dengan Core i7 secara clock-to-clock (baca. performa), mungkin lebih tepat bersaing dengan Core 2 Quad 9xxx mengingat harga keseluruhan PC Phenom II lebih murah.
Selasa, 01 Desember 2009
A / An / The
What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: the and a/an. "The" is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; "a/an" is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. "A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind. Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.
Indefinite Articles: a and an
"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:
* "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
* "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
* "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.
Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...
* a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
* an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
* a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
* In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:
An historical event is worth recording.
In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.
Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors. Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst. If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
* a broken egg
* an unusual problem
* a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:
* I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)
* Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)
* Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)
Definite Article: the
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.
Count and Noncount Nouns
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
* "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
* "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
* "I need a bottle of water."
* "I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.
Geographical use of the
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns. Do not use the before:
* names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
* names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
* names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
* names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
* names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
* names of continents (Asia, Europe)
* names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
* names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
* points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
* geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
* deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula
Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
* Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
* Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
* Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. "A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind. Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.
Indefinite Articles: a and an
"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:
* "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
* "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
* "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.
Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...
* a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
* an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
* a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
* In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:
An historical event is worth recording.
In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.
Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors. Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst. If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
* a broken egg
* an unusual problem
* a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:
* I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)
* Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)
* Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)
Definite Article: the
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.
Count and Noncount Nouns
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
* "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
* "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
* "I need a bottle of water."
* "I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.
Geographical use of the
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns. Do not use the before:
* names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
* names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
* names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
* names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
* names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
* names of continents (Asia, Europe)
* names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
* names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
* points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
* geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
* deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula
Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
* Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
* Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
* Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science
Present Perfect
PRESENT PERFECT
Present Perfect Continuous terdiri dari sebuah subjek, sebuah kata kerja -ing dan dua kata kerja bantu (”been” dan “have”).
Subject + has/have + been + verb+ing
Contoh:
* She has been crying in her room for half an hour now
* We‘ve been waiting for a good offer to buy a car since March
* I‘ve been waiting for you to come (but now you’re back!)
Untuk bentuk negatif ditambahkan not. Contoh:
* I haven’t been sleeping very well recently
* I haven’t been waiting for 50 minutes
* John hasn’t been using his A drive for a long time
Untuk bentuk bertanya kita menukar posisi have/has dengan subjek. Contoh:
* Have you been running?
* Has Tom been walking the dog?
* How long have you been learning English?
* What have you been doing there?
Present Perfect Continuous terdiri dari sebuah subjek, sebuah kata kerja -ing dan dua kata kerja bantu (”been” dan “have”).
Subject + has/have + been + verb+ing
Contoh:
* She has been crying in her room for half an hour now
* We‘ve been waiting for a good offer to buy a car since March
* I‘ve been waiting for you to come (but now you’re back!)
Untuk bentuk negatif ditambahkan not. Contoh:
* I haven’t been sleeping very well recently
* I haven’t been waiting for 50 minutes
* John hasn’t been using his A drive for a long time
Untuk bentuk bertanya kita menukar posisi have/has dengan subjek. Contoh:
* Have you been running?
* Has Tom been walking the dog?
* How long have you been learning English?
* What have you been doing there?
Simple Past Tense dan Past Progressive
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
Simple Past Tense digunakan untuk fakta-fakta atau peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi di masa lampau. Contoh:
* I played tennis with some guys from work yesterday.
* We stayed in Shanghai for five days.
Kata kerja simple past tense (kata kerja bentuk ke-2) yang reguler dibentuk dengan menambahkan “-ed” pada akhiran kata kerja. Contoh:
* jump -> jumped: The dog jumped over the fence.
* walk -> walked: I walked 22 kilometers yesterday.
* work -> worked: We worked together as lawyers for 15 years.
Simple past tense digunakan untuk menyatakan sebuah tindakan yang telah selesai dilakukan. Contoh:
* We watched a movie at the weekend (kami menonton film di akhir pekan)
* She arrived on Thursday (dia tiba hari Kamis)
Waktu spesifik harus dinyatakan atau diisyaratkan. Contoh:
* I walked to work this morning - Dalam kalimat ini waktunya disebutkan
* I walked to work - Dalam kalimat ini waktu tidak disebutkan, tetapi konteks kalimatnya dapat membuat kita memahami waktu yang dimaksud (yakni waktu lampau).
Kalimat negatif
Kalimat negatif simple past tense dibuat dengan did dan not. Did adalah bentuk lampau dari kata kerja to do. Did dan not sering disingkat menjadi didn’t. Contoh:
- I arrived in London on Monday -> I didn’t arrive on Sunday.
- They stayed at the Vivaldi Hotel -> They didn’t stay at the Carlton Hotel.
Karena “did” merupakan bentuk lampau, maka kata kerja utama tidak mengalami perubahan. Contoh:
* We didn’t live in Italy. Did adalah bentuk lampau sehingga live tidak dirubah menjadi bentuk lampau.
* We didn’t lived in Italy. Kalimat ini tidak benar
Kalimat bertanya
Pertanyaan dibuat dengan menempatkan did sebelum subjek. Contoh:
* You lived in Japan -> Did you live in Japan?
* They stayed at the Vivaldi Hotel -> Did they stay at the Vivaldi Hotel?
Kata kerja utama juga tidak berubah (tidak diganti menjadi bentuk lampau), contoh:
- You lived in Japan -> Did you lived in Japan? (tidak benar)
- You lived in Japan -> Did you live in Japan? (benar)
PAST PROGRESSIVE
past progressive alias pas continuous. bentuk kalimat yang satu ini kita pakai untuk menjelaskan pekerjaan yang sedang berlangsung di waktu tertentu di masa lalu.
contoh
at around this time yesterday, we were still working. sekitar jam segini kemarin, kami masih bekerja.
she was still chatting with her friends at 9pm last night. sekitar jam 9 kemarin malam, dia masih saja bercakap-cakap dengan teman-temannya.
i was still sitting in my classroom at 1pm yesterday. saya masih duduk di dalam kelas jam 1 siang kemarin.
Simple Past Tense digunakan untuk fakta-fakta atau peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi di masa lampau. Contoh:
* I played tennis with some guys from work yesterday.
* We stayed in Shanghai for five days.
Kata kerja simple past tense (kata kerja bentuk ke-2) yang reguler dibentuk dengan menambahkan “-ed” pada akhiran kata kerja. Contoh:
* jump -> jumped: The dog jumped over the fence.
* walk -> walked: I walked 22 kilometers yesterday.
* work -> worked: We worked together as lawyers for 15 years.
Simple past tense digunakan untuk menyatakan sebuah tindakan yang telah selesai dilakukan. Contoh:
* We watched a movie at the weekend (kami menonton film di akhir pekan)
* She arrived on Thursday (dia tiba hari Kamis)
Waktu spesifik harus dinyatakan atau diisyaratkan. Contoh:
* I walked to work this morning - Dalam kalimat ini waktunya disebutkan
* I walked to work - Dalam kalimat ini waktu tidak disebutkan, tetapi konteks kalimatnya dapat membuat kita memahami waktu yang dimaksud (yakni waktu lampau).
Kalimat negatif
Kalimat negatif simple past tense dibuat dengan did dan not. Did adalah bentuk lampau dari kata kerja to do. Did dan not sering disingkat menjadi didn’t. Contoh:
- I arrived in London on Monday -> I didn’t arrive on Sunday.
- They stayed at the Vivaldi Hotel -> They didn’t stay at the Carlton Hotel.
Karena “did” merupakan bentuk lampau, maka kata kerja utama tidak mengalami perubahan. Contoh:
* We didn’t live in Italy. Did adalah bentuk lampau sehingga live tidak dirubah menjadi bentuk lampau.
* We didn’t lived in Italy. Kalimat ini tidak benar
Kalimat bertanya
Pertanyaan dibuat dengan menempatkan did sebelum subjek. Contoh:
* You lived in Japan -> Did you live in Japan?
* They stayed at the Vivaldi Hotel -> Did they stay at the Vivaldi Hotel?
Kata kerja utama juga tidak berubah (tidak diganti menjadi bentuk lampau), contoh:
- You lived in Japan -> Did you lived in Japan? (tidak benar)
- You lived in Japan -> Did you live in Japan? (benar)
PAST PROGRESSIVE
past progressive alias pas continuous. bentuk kalimat yang satu ini kita pakai untuk menjelaskan pekerjaan yang sedang berlangsung di waktu tertentu di masa lalu.
contoh
at around this time yesterday, we were still working. sekitar jam segini kemarin, kami masih bekerja.
she was still chatting with her friends at 9pm last night. sekitar jam 9 kemarin malam, dia masih saja bercakap-cakap dengan teman-temannya.
i was still sitting in my classroom at 1pm yesterday. saya masih duduk di dalam kelas jam 1 siang kemarin.
Simple Present dan Present Progressive
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Ada beberapa penggunaan dari simple present tense, yaitu :
1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang
2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung
3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.
Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini
1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)
Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.
EXAMPLES:
I play tennis.
She does not play tennis.
The train leaves every morning at 8 am.
The train does not leave at 9am.
She always forgets her purse.
He never forgets his wallet.
Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.
The sun does not circle the Earth.
2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations)
Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya
EXAMPLES:
Cats like milk.
Birds do not like milk.
Jakarta is in Indonesia
Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.
Windows are made of glass.
Windows are not made of wood.
Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)
3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.
EXAMPLES:
I am here now.
She is not here now.
He needs help right now.
He does not need help now.
He has a car.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
subject + to be + verb ~ing
contoh ya
i am doing my homework. saya sedang mengerjakan peer.
she is washing the dishes. dia sedang mencuci piring.
they are playing football. mereka sedang bermain sepakbola.
yak benar! bentuk ~ing yang mengindikasikan sesuatu pekerjaan sedang berlangsung.
ketiga contoh diatas menunjukkan pekerjaan-pekerjaan yang sedang berlangsung sekarang, as we speak. meski demikian ada juga yang ga musti as speak, tapi pekerjaan yang sedang dibicarakan masih berlanjut sekarang. kalo pusing, liat aja contoh dibawah ini.
paul sedang makan siang dengan john ketika john bertanya
john : what are you doing now?
paul : i am working on a project.
saat mengatakan i am working on a project, paul sebenarnya sedang makan siang kan, dan bukannya mengerjakan proyek yang dia bicarakan. tapi pada saat ini proyek yang sedang dia kerjakan masih berlangsung, belum selesai.
contoh lain
nina : what book are you reading now?
nana : i am reading old man and the sea.
Ada beberapa penggunaan dari simple present tense, yaitu :
1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang
2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung
3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.
Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini
1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)
Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.
EXAMPLES:
I play tennis.
She does not play tennis.
The train leaves every morning at 8 am.
The train does not leave at 9am.
She always forgets her purse.
He never forgets his wallet.
Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.
The sun does not circle the Earth.
2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations)
Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya
EXAMPLES:
Cats like milk.
Birds do not like milk.
Jakarta is in Indonesia
Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.
Windows are made of glass.
Windows are not made of wood.
Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)
3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.
EXAMPLES:
I am here now.
She is not here now.
He needs help right now.
He does not need help now.
He has a car.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
subject + to be + verb ~ing
contoh ya
i am doing my homework. saya sedang mengerjakan peer.
she is washing the dishes. dia sedang mencuci piring.
they are playing football. mereka sedang bermain sepakbola.
yak benar! bentuk ~ing yang mengindikasikan sesuatu pekerjaan sedang berlangsung.
ketiga contoh diatas menunjukkan pekerjaan-pekerjaan yang sedang berlangsung sekarang, as we speak. meski demikian ada juga yang ga musti as speak, tapi pekerjaan yang sedang dibicarakan masih berlanjut sekarang. kalo pusing, liat aja contoh dibawah ini.
paul sedang makan siang dengan john ketika john bertanya
john : what are you doing now?
paul : i am working on a project.
saat mengatakan i am working on a project, paul sebenarnya sedang makan siang kan, dan bukannya mengerjakan proyek yang dia bicarakan. tapi pada saat ini proyek yang sedang dia kerjakan masih berlangsung, belum selesai.
contoh lain
nina : what book are you reading now?
nana : i am reading old man and the sea.
ANOTHER, OTHERS dan THE OTHERS.
Kata other, another, dan others dapat diartikan dengan : yang lain atau lainnya. Ketiga kata tersebut sangat mudah membingungkan. Maka untuk menentukan bagaimana menggunakannya dengan tepat masing-masing kata itu harus diperhatikan empat hal.
1. Jika kata itu singular (tunggal) atau plural (jamak).
2. Jika kata itu definite –the- (tentu) atau indefinite –a- (tak tentu)
3. Jika kata itu berfungsi sebagai adjective yang menerangkan noun atau senantiasa bersama dengan noun.
4. Jika kata itu berfungsi sebagai pronoun yang dapat berdiri sendiri.
Perhatikanlah contoh-contoh berikut :
a. I have another (adj.) book
b. I have another (pron.)
“Perhatikan bahwa another digunakan hanya untuk menunjuk kepada an indefinite (tak tentu). Dan dengan benda tunggal (singular)”
c. I have other (adj.) books.
d. I have others. (pron)
e. I have the other book (adj.)
f. I have the other (pron.)
g. I have the other books (adj.)
h. I have the others (pron).
“Perhatikan bahwa Others hanya digunakan sebagai plural pronoun yang tidak bersama dengan noun(dapat berdiri sendiri). Sedangkan other dapat digunakan untuk semuanya”
i. I have three books, two are mine. The other book is yours. (The others is yours).
j. I have three books, one is mine. The others are yours. (The others are yours).
k. If you are still thirsty, I’ll make another pot of coffee.
Example :
OTHER -- the singular form. The word refers to something that is different from something else. For instance, Director A makes a movie based on a famous novel. Director B makes a different movie based on the same novel.
Luke: "Did you like Director A's movie?"
Ted: "Yes, but I liked the OTHER version much better."
Luke: "What do you think of my new wrist watch?" [On his right wrist.]
Ted: "I think you should wear it on your OTHER wrist."
Two senators write two different pieces of legislation about the same topic. "I like Senator Luke's legislation, but the OTHER one will probably be approved."
So, when we use the singular word "other," we are actually referring to something different from something else: X is fine, but I think the OTHER ["Y"] is more acceptable.
*****
OTHERS -- the plural form, for more than one "other"
Some essays are easy to read; OTHERS are much more difficult.
Many people chose to vote in the election. OTHERS simply stayed at home, not interested in voting at all. [OTHERS clearly indicates the "different" or "non-voting" people.]
*****
THE OTHERS -- same as above, but used in cases where the article "the" is necessary.
Luke: "Would you like to have THESE shirts?"
Ted: "No, I think THE OTHERS look more presentable."
The "chosen" people lived in the wealthy homes; all THE OTHERS lived in very poor houses. ["The others" in this example means "the people who are NOT wealthy" or THE OTHERS.]
*****
ANOTHER -- The dictionary definition is this: "different or distinct from the one first considered" OR "additional" OR "later."
Different or distinct --
Luke: "Are you going to write your essay about global warming?"
Ted: "I had thought I would, but I have changed my mind and will write on ANOTHER topic."
Additional --
Luke: "Did you get enough to eat?"
Ted: "No, I think I'll have another piece of pie."
Later --
Luke: "Are you taking a trip this weekend?"
Ted: "I think I'll wait until ANOTHER time."
1. Jika kata itu singular (tunggal) atau plural (jamak).
2. Jika kata itu definite –the- (tentu) atau indefinite –a- (tak tentu)
3. Jika kata itu berfungsi sebagai adjective yang menerangkan noun atau senantiasa bersama dengan noun.
4. Jika kata itu berfungsi sebagai pronoun yang dapat berdiri sendiri.
Perhatikanlah contoh-contoh berikut :
a. I have another (adj.) book
b. I have another (pron.)
“Perhatikan bahwa another digunakan hanya untuk menunjuk kepada an indefinite (tak tentu). Dan dengan benda tunggal (singular)”
c. I have other (adj.) books.
d. I have others. (pron)
e. I have the other book (adj.)
f. I have the other (pron.)
g. I have the other books (adj.)
h. I have the others (pron).
“Perhatikan bahwa Others hanya digunakan sebagai plural pronoun yang tidak bersama dengan noun(dapat berdiri sendiri). Sedangkan other dapat digunakan untuk semuanya”
i. I have three books, two are mine. The other book is yours. (The others is yours).
j. I have three books, one is mine. The others are yours. (The others are yours).
k. If you are still thirsty, I’ll make another pot of coffee.
Example :
OTHER -- the singular form. The word refers to something that is different from something else. For instance, Director A makes a movie based on a famous novel. Director B makes a different movie based on the same novel.
Luke: "Did you like Director A's movie?"
Ted: "Yes, but I liked the OTHER version much better."
Luke: "What do you think of my new wrist watch?" [On his right wrist.]
Ted: "I think you should wear it on your OTHER wrist."
Two senators write two different pieces of legislation about the same topic. "I like Senator Luke's legislation, but the OTHER one will probably be approved."
So, when we use the singular word "other," we are actually referring to something different from something else: X is fine, but I think the OTHER ["Y"] is more acceptable.
*****
OTHERS -- the plural form, for more than one "other"
Some essays are easy to read; OTHERS are much more difficult.
Many people chose to vote in the election. OTHERS simply stayed at home, not interested in voting at all. [OTHERS clearly indicates the "different" or "non-voting" people.]
*****
THE OTHERS -- same as above, but used in cases where the article "the" is necessary.
Luke: "Would you like to have THESE shirts?"
Ted: "No, I think THE OTHERS look more presentable."
The "chosen" people lived in the wealthy homes; all THE OTHERS lived in very poor houses. ["The others" in this example means "the people who are NOT wealthy" or THE OTHERS.]
*****
ANOTHER -- The dictionary definition is this: "different or distinct from the one first considered" OR "additional" OR "later."
Different or distinct --
Luke: "Are you going to write your essay about global warming?"
Ted: "I had thought I would, but I have changed my mind and will write on ANOTHER topic."
Additional --
Luke: "Did you get enough to eat?"
Ted: "No, I think I'll have another piece of pie."
Later --
Luke: "Are you taking a trip this weekend?"
Ted: "I think I'll wait until ANOTHER time."
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